Permalink : http://hdl.handle.net/2115/49253

Haida has two causative prefixes, ･･･- and ･･･- (of which the latter is extended from the instrumental meaning “by hand”), and one causative suffix, -･･. The present study reveals the differences among these three affixes, which can be observed both morphosyntactically and semantically. Morphosyntactically, the valence of the base verb constrains these causative affixes; ･･･- can be freely added to any two-argument verb, while -･･ is added to a relatively small number of two-argument verbs. ･･･- is never added to two-argument verbs. Another difference at the morphosyntactic level can be seen in terms of animacy of causers and causees. ･･･- can be used in causatives with animate causers and causees, when the base verb is designated as [+agency, +control] by semantic features, while the other two can be added to base verbs designated as [−agency, ±control]. ･･･- is also possible in causatives with inanimate causers only when the causees are animate. -･･ 114 is not as constrained as the other two affixes in terms of causee animacy and the semantic features of the base verb. Semantically, it is difficult to elucidate the differences among the three causatives, but it is pointed out that the ･･･- causative inclines toward indirect causation and the ･･･- causative toward direct causation. The -･･ causative seems to cover the widest range of causation, from indirect causation, where it may be interchangeable with ･･･-, to direct causation, where the difference between -･･ and ･･･- becomes unclear.